Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry

Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry Organic Nomenclature Oxford Dictionaries (n.d.) defines nomenclature as â€Å"the devising or choosing of names for things, especially in a science or other discipline†{Dictionaries, #[emailprotected]@author-year}. I believe the easiest way to understand the rules associated with the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is with examples and so the majority of this essay will be dealing with examples and their explanations. Simek (1999) introduces the systematic naming of an organic compound with a fundamental rule, that to begin naming, one must first identify the parent structure, â€Å"based on naming a molecule’s longest chain of carbons connected by single bonds, whether in a continuous chain or in a ring†. After which, â€Å"all deviations, either multiple bonds or atoms other than carbon and hydrogen, are indicated by prefixes or suffixes according to a specific set of priorities†. Simek (1999) also describes how alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, which are molecules only containing carbon and hydrogen bonded by single bonds only. Alkanes can be subdivided into two main groups, linear and cyclic; linear describes molecules that can be bonded in continuous chains and cyclic describes molecules that are bonded in a ring like structure. The simplest of all to name are straight chain alkanes: CH4Methane C2H6Ethane C3H8Propane C4H10Butane C5H12Pentane C6H14Hexane C7H16Heptane C8H18Octane C9H20Nonane C10H22Decane C11H24Undecane C12H26Dodecane In order to name cycloalkanes, the prefix â€Å"cyclo† is used: C3H6CyclopropaneC4H8Cyclobutane C5H10Cycloheptane Nomenclature of Branched Chain Alkanes University of California, Davis (n.d.) describes how â€Å"An alkyl group is formed by removing one hydrogen from the alkane chain, and is described by the formula CnH2n+1. The removal of this hydrogen results in a stem change from-aneto-yl.† E.g. Propane to propyl. In order to systematically name a molecule, first identify the parent structure. In this case the longest carbon chain is 6-Carbons long, as a result the parent structure is Hexane. The carbons in the chain are numbered from the end giving the substituents (The group substituted in place of hydrogen, in this case the substituent is CH3-Methyl) the lowest possible number The substituents or functional groups that are attached to the parent chain are then named. There are two, one-carbon long alkyl groups and as a result take methane, drop the -ane and replace it with –yl ­, giving methyl. N.B. If the alkyl group is two-carbons long (CH3CH2), the name would be ethyl, CH3CH2CH2- propyl, CH3CH2CH2CH2- butyl. Number the substituents to identify their positions relative to the parent structure. Here, substituent positions are 2 and 4. Hardinger (2008) emphasises that a number must be assigned to each substituent, along with its prefix (di-, tri-, terta-, penta-, etc.), even if the same substituents are present in the molecule In this example 2,4-dimethyl. Position numbers for substituents are ordered numerically, substituent names are ordered alphabetically (prefixes such as di-, tri-, tetra-, etc., are excluded from alphabetical ordering, but cyclo, iso and neo are included) and are then written before the parent name. If these rules are adhered to, the molecule is named as: 2,4-dimethylhexane. Nomenclature of Alkenes Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons and differ from alkanes, as they have at least one C=C double bond. Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n, which is the same general formula for cycloalkanes. Following the same basic rules as before, identify the parent structure. Here, the longest carbon chain is 7-Carbons long, thus the parent structure is heptane. The molecule is numbered so that the substituents have the lowest possible position numbers. The substituents are then named. As the molecule has a double bond, it is identified as an alkene and as the parent structure is heptane, it is named heptene. However, take into account there is also a methyl group. Numbering the positions of the substituents gives, 2-methyl and 1,3-diene, since the molecule contains one methyl group and two double bonds. Position numbers are ordered numerically, the substituents ordered alphabetically and both written before the parent name. Due to the fact the double bonds use a suffix (-ene is at the end of the name), 1,3-diene is not ordered before 2-methyl. Systematically naming the molecule gives it an IUPAC name of: 2-methylhepta-1,3-diene. Nomenclature of Haloalkanes Haloalkanes are organic compounds, where an alkane contains at least one halogen. Haloalkanes have a general formula of CnH2n+1X (X=Halogen e.g. Cl) In order to name haloalkanes, the –ine of the halogen name is removed, leaving the prefix (e.g. fluorine becomes floro-, chlorine becomes chloro-, etc.). The same rules are then applied to systematically name the haloalkane. Nomenclature of Alkynes Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, as they contain at least one C≠¡C bond. Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2. Again identify the parent structure, the longest carbon chain is 7-Carbons long and therefore the parent structure is identified as heptane. The molecule is numbered so substituent positions have the lowest possible numbers. Here the substituents are: two methyl groups, one chloro group and one C≠¡C triple bond. The longest chain is 7-Carbons long and contains a C≠¡C triple bond; therefore, it is identified as heptyne. The substituent positions are numbered giving: 6,6-dimethyl, 4-chloro and hept-2-yne. Finally position numbers are ordered numerically, substituent names are ordered alphabetically and are written in front of the parent name. The molecule is given an IUPAC name: 4-chloro-6,6-dimethylhept-2-yne. Nomenclature of Alcohols Alcohols are organic compounds containing at least one –OH group bonded to it. The hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen on a carbon and because of this, alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH. The parent structure for this molecule is identified as octane, since the longest carbon chain is 8-Carbons long. The molecule is numbered, giving the lowest possible numbers to substituents. Substituents in this molecule are: one hydroxyl group and one chloro group. The longest carbon chain is 8-Carbons long and since it contains a hydroxyl group, it is identified as an alcohol. The position numbers for substituents are: 4-chloro and octan-2-ol. Position numbers are ordered numerically, substituent names are ordered alphabetically and are placed before the parent name (the hydroxyl group identifies the molecule as an alcohol, as such, it uses the suffix –ol instead of the prefix hydroxy-). The molecule has an IUPAC name: 4-chlorooctan-2-ol. Nomenclature of Amines Amines are derivatives of ammonia (NH3), the replacing of one or more hydrogens in ammonia with organic compound(s) creates an amine. Replacing one hydrogen, will create a primary amine, two hydrogens – secondary amine, three hydrogens – tertiary amine. Methylamine (primary) Dimethylamine (secondary) Trimethylamine (tertiary) When naming amines, the longest carbon chain including the amine group is determined and numbered so to give the amine group the lowest possible position number. If the molecule is a secondary amine, the longest carbon chain is used as the parent structure and the other chain is denoted with N-alkyl (if both chains are of equal length, the molecule can be named dialkylamine). If the molecule is a tertiary amine, like secondary amines the longest carbon chain is used as the parent structure and the other chains are denoted with N-alkyl (if all chains are of equal length, the molecule can be named trialkylamine). Nomenclature of Ethers University of California, Davis (n.d.) describes ethers as, organic compounds that contain two alkyl groups bonded to an oxygen atom (e.g. CH3CH2OCH3). Ethers only use the prefix alkoxy-, where the –ane of the alkane is removed. According to University of California, Davis (n.d.) the prefix alkoxy- is always treated as a substituent, because there is no suffix for ethers. When naming the molecule the shorter carbon chain becomes the alkoxy- substituent (e.g. methoxy) and the longer carbon chain is identified as the parent structure. Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones Both aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds that contain the carbonyl group C=O. Aldehydes feature at the end of a carbon chain (e.g. CH3CH2CH2CHO), whereas, ketones are part of the carbon chain (e.g. CH3CH2COCH3) When naming aldehydes it is important to note that they exist only on the ends of carbon chains and therefore do not need a position number included in the name, the aldehyde is presumed to be position 1. Aldehyde’s use the suffix –al in naming and replace the –e at the end of alkanes (e.g. Butane becomes butanal). Ketones use the suffix –one in naming and replace the –e at the end of alkanes (e.g. pentane becomes pentanone); however, unlike aldehydes ketones need position numbers, as there are multiple positions for the C=O bond (with the exception of simple ketones like propanone, as there is only one position for the carbonyl group). Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids Carboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain the carboxyl group COOH. Like aldehydes carboxylic acids are only present at the end of carbon chains and therefore, do not have positions numbers. Carboxylic acids use the suffix –oic acid and replace the –e at the end of alkanes (e.g. Ethane becomes ethanoic acid). N.B. One must be aware, that although there are systematic IUPAC names for all molecules, some molecules have common names e.g. ethanoic acid used to be known as acetic acid and is most commonly known as vinegar. Nomenclature of Esters Esters are formed from reacting a carboxylic acids with alcohols. University of California, Davis (n.d.) briefly explains, that esters are named by treating the alkyl chain from the alcohol as a substituent and the carboxylic acid forms the parent structure, where the –oic acid part is replaced with –oate (e.g. Ethanoic acid becomes ethanoate). Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds Simek (1999) describes, how aromatic compounds are derived from benzene rings (C6H6), by replacing one hydrogen with a substituent group. The removal of one hydrogen from the benzene results in the phenyl group. When naming aromatic compounds the parent name benzene is used and appropriate prefixes. Priority Rules of Nomenclature When the molecule being named has multiple functional groups and substituent groups, the group with highest priority is numbered so it has the lowest possible position number. This list based on Simek’s (1999) priority table, shows priorities from highest to lowest: Carboxylic Acids Esters Aldehydes Ketones Alcohols Amines Alkenes Alkynes Alkyls Ethers Halo Compounds Aromatic Compounds References: Simek, J., 1999.IUPAC_Handout. [e-book] San Luis Obispo: California Polytechnic State University. Available at: http://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/organic/IUPAC_Handout.pdf [Accessed 10 Feb. 14] Lam, D., n.d. [online] Nomenclature of Benzenes – Chemwiki. Available at: http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Organic_Chemistry/Hydrocarbons/Aromatics/Nomenclature_of_Benzenes [Accessed 13 Feb. 14] Oxford Dictionaries. N.d. [online]nomenclature: definition of nomenclature in Oxford dictionary (British World English). Available at: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/nomenclature [Accessed 10 Feb. 14] Hardinger, S., 2008. Nomenclature_02. [e-book] Los Angeles: University of California. Available at: http://www.chem.ucla.edu/harding/notes/nomenclature_02.pdf [Accessed 10 Feb. 14] Clark, J. 2000. [online] Naming aromatic compounds. Available at: http://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/conventions/names3.html [Accessed 12 Feb. 14]

Prolix Initiative †Care workers case study Essay

Kevin Pudney and Malcolm Rose have worked in the care sector for over 20 years. Their most recent job is part of a European project aimed at improving training and development in business and ‘speeding the time to competency’. More information on the research project is available on the Prolix website (www.prolixproject.org). The project was conducted in partnership with Social Care Institute of Excellence. The social care sector in UK was chosen to test the new systems developed as part of the project. The researcher spent 3 years in Suffolk working with 6 care homes owned by The Partnership In Care (TPIC) group. The Social Care Institute of Excellence (SCIE) [1] is responsible for this social care ‘test-bed’ and will assess the impact of the project. What’s the problem? Statistics from the Labour Force Survey show that Care Assistants and Home Carers report higher than average levels of stress related illness caused or made worse by the work they do. The PROLIX project aimed to develop systems that would help improve working lives of managers and staff at the homes. The project was not about work related stress, but the researchers recognised that there were factors present that can be associated with cases of work related stress. Staff turnover was about average for a sector that has a generally high turn over rate at around 25%. However, it was particularly high in one home after management problems, where analysis showed turnover in the previous two years of 57%. As skilled staff are replaced by unskilled staff, it increases the training demands on management. It is well established that people who need help with social care want the same carer to care for them consistently; especially those who need help with washing, dressing etc. Where homes have a high turn over rate or rely on temporary or ‘bank’ staff they struggle to offer this consistency of care to the people who live at the home. Other issues identified as part of the testing included; low pay, high job demands, low staffing levels, IT issues and needs of residents as being key issues for staff. Job demands included: 1. The care needs of residents 2. Requirements to record information on care given 3. ‘Required’ skills and knowledge in over a dozen ‘mandatory’ areas of competence. Control issues included: 1. The care needs of residents 2. Lack of control over how work is carried out 3. Lack of control over when work is carried out What did they do about it? The initiative focused on improving the management of training and development in order to give staff the skills they need to do the job and satisfy the legal requirements set by Care Quality Commission (CQC). The aim of the work was to help managers understand the issues faced by staff and for Care Assistants to get the training they need so that they could be more skilled and perform better, stay in the role longer and give residents the care that the are looking for. The general study involved all staff and managers at The Partnership in Care homes, and subsets of staff for particular areas of research. One area involved asking care staff to rate themselves on a scale of 1-10 for a set of 17 areas of competency. These areas were based on the requirements set out by CQC and other areas identified as important by the local training manager. Managers were then asked to rate each of their staff in the same competency areas. They had not seen the results from their staff when they did their assessment. This exercise helped staff identify their own Areas For Improvement (AFI) and managers to identify AFIs for staff. It also allowed comparison between staff and managers. This enabled the training manager to identify areas where members of staff did not feel confident in their role or where managers did not feel confident that staff had the necessary skills. It also allowed the training manager to look for trends within teams, for example where there were differences between the ratings given by staff and a manager. It could also identify where people may be over-confident or where they needed more support. The general findings from this competency exercise were shared with staff and managers in a supported environment to help them identify issues and properly interpret data, where training was needed and where staff felt there could be an improvement in the services offered to residents. The detailed individual results were treated as confidential and discussed further in supervision. The final results of the project research were delivered to staff and managers at each home in a day-long session at the end of the project. This enabled the consultant to explain the exercises and the results and spend time with staff and managers to give them support in receiving and delivering the results. It also enabled them to explain how these results would be fed into the development needs of the people who had taken part. There are some 600-800 person training units to be delivered per home to skill all staff to a basic level, with a significant proportion repeated annually as ‘refreshers’ and for new unskilled staff. The organisation owns 6 homes, making this a huge and time consuming activity. The Partnership in Care group has a full time training manager who is responsible for arranging and delivering these training units. Kevin and Malcolm worked with the training manager to help develop a spreadsheet that would enable trainers and managers to see at a glance who had the training they needed, what training was outstanding and when refresher training was due. â€Å"The training system has helped us see at a glance what training is outstanding and made sure that we can get people trained when they need it and nobody is missed out.† – Care home manager What else could have been done? They feel that one of the things they would do differently is to help the organisation try to identify suitable people at interview stage. This would help The Partnership In Care group to identify staff development needs at an early stage and invest in those people who have the desire to forge a career or vocation in social care from the beginning of their employment. This would help keep them with the organisation. How can it prevent stress related ill health? It must be made clear that this exercise was not put in place with work related stress in mind. The objective was to help improve the organisation and delivery of training and development within the company. However, demands and control issues were identified as part of this study. By improving the levels of competence of staff and managers and in helping them think about the skills they need to be successful in their work and improve the lives of the people who rely upon them, the work has helped address some of these demand and control issues.

Sociological Imagination Case Study - 728 Words

The sociologist C. Wright Mills has observed that people often believe their private lives can be explained only with respect to their own personal successes and failures. The process of interpreting ones life in the context of ones community or the society in which one lives is called sociological imagination. It is an important process because it lets the individual understand the impact one makes, no matter how small, on the lives of others. A good example of the process can be demonstrated by exploring the effects of one persons unemployment. The case of Jane is hypothetical, but there are many people in circumstances similar to Janes as the American economy still struggles to recover from the mortgage crisis and resulting recession that began in 2008. Jane worked in the same school, Fairlawn Elementary School, for seven years as a second grade teacher. Jane was tenured but because there is so little mobility in the small town where she lives and worked, the teachers at Fairlawn generally stay, once hired, until their retirement. Thus, Jane was the newest member of the professional staff and the first to lose her job when cuts had to be made. Jane is married and has two young children, ages four and two. Janes husband is in the construction and remodeling business, which can be lucrative when he is working, but jobs are not always steady. The family relied on Janes regular pay check. They also relied on her benefits; the school district offered a goodShow MoreRelatedSociological Imagination1017 Words   |  5 PagesThe concept of â€Å"sociological imagination† is one that can be explained many different ways. 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When I Was1117 Words   |  5 Pagesand child in the United States was vastly different to the expectations placed by society in India. Sociological imagination and sociological mindfulness enabled me to understand how my personal private issues were shaped by larger social forces and allowed me to pay attention to the struggles of others. Sociological imagination is term that was first coined by C.W. Mills. Sociological imagination is the ability to understand the intersection between biography and history or the interplay between

Essay on The Nature of Man in Gullivers Travels - 742 Words

The Nature of Man in Gullivers Travels Swift uses many personae to sketch the nature of man in Book 4 of Gullivers travels. The problem with this is that none of the personae give us the same definition of the nature of man. First of all, there is Gulliver himself, who bases his judgments on the ways in which the Yahoos behave and the way the people from his country behave. He ties it all together at the end in his reflections. Most of all, throughout the book, we get an idea of the nature of man through Gullivers behavior. The Yahoos cannot comment on the nature of man, however, they display it in the ways they behave and interact. Lastly, the Houyhnhnms give us some ideas on the nature of man, through their observations of the†¦show more content†¦By this explanation, it seems as if Gulliver is already beginning to abhor his own race, for instance he is the one who describes lust and envy as terrible, not his master. He does not instead; describe the better attributes that humans are capable of, such as charit y and love. The houyhnhnms have the best grasp on the nature of man, because they are not human. They hear the stories of Gullivers land and compare them to their observations of the yahoos native to their land. Therefore they can make an unbiased statement of what the nature of man is. Simply put, they see the yahoos of their land as greedy, cunning, mischievous, and without reason. Gullivers people seem to be the same as the yahoos, and though the houyhnhnms do not believe they have reason, they believe they possess some quality fitted to increase (their) natural vices (1083). In contrast to the yahoos, Gullivers people practice their waywardness not through the means that nature gave them, but through the things they create. The master houyhnhnm explains many characteristics of the yahoos of his land to Gulliver. The characteristics that the yahoos embody are not all that different from the characteristics that civilized Englishmen possess. For instance, Gullivers master tells him how yahoos hate each other and will fight over food even when there is more than enough to eat, andShow MoreRelatedEssay about Jonathan Swifts Gullivers Travels1664 Words   |  7 Pages Although Gullivers Travels by Jonathan Swift has long been thought of as a childrens story, it is actually a dark satire on the fallacies of human nature. The four parts of the book are arranged in a planned sequence, to show Gullivers optimism and lack of shame with the Lilliputians, decaying into his shame and disgust with humans when he is in the land of the Houyhnhmns. 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